The 19th century marked a period of dramatic transformation for Abkhazia as it was drawn into the orbit of the expanding Russian Empire. This era, spanning from 1801 to 1917, was characterized by a complex interplay of power struggles, cultural shifts, and demographic upheavals.
From Vassal to Territory: A Piecemeal Incorporation
Russia’s growing influence in the Caucasus was fueled by its victories over the major Georgian kingdoms of Kartli-Kakheti and Imereti between 1801 and 1810. The Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) provided the next crucial turning point for Abkhazia. In 1810, Russian forces captured the key fortress of Suhum-kale (modern Sukhumi). Following this victory, they installed Sefer Bey (Georgi), a pro-Russian nobleman, as ruler. Under Sefer Bey’s leadership, Abkhazia became a vassal principality within the Russian Empire.
However, Russian control initially remained tenuous. Their influence was largely confined to Suhum-kale and the Bzyb River area. Much of the region remained under the sway of a pro-Turkish Muslim nobility. A series of conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and the fiercely independent North Caucasian tribes ensued. Between 1829 and 1842, the Russians gradually gained control over Abkhazia in a piecemeal fashion.
Consolidation and Repercussions: The Abkhaz Revolts and Mass Emigration
Despite territorial gains, solidifying power proved a significant challenge for the Russians. It wasn’t until 1864 that they finally abolished the local princely authority. This move culminated in the exile and subsequent death of the last Abkhaz prince, Michael Shervashidze.
The heavy hand of the Russian administration sparked discontent among the Abkhaz population. This simmering resentment erupted in two major revolts – one in 1866 and another in 1877. The 1866 uprising stemmed from the imposition of harsh taxes, while the 1877 revolt was fueled by the arrival of Ottoman troops.
The Russian response to these rebellions was swift and brutal. Harsh government crackdowns resulted in a dramatic demographic shift. An estimated 60% of the Muslim Abkhaz population fled their homes, becoming Muhajirs (emigrants) who resettled in Ottoman territories between 1866 and 1878. The accuracy of these figures remains debated due to limitations in contemporary census data.
By 1881, the number of Abkhaz remaining within the Russian Empire had dwindled to a mere 20,000, a stark illustration of the devastating impact of these conflicts and subsequent emigration.
A Shifting Demographic Landscape
Despite the Abkhaz exodus, the region continued to experience demographic changes. The 1897 census indicated that Abkhaz still constituted a significant majority (60-65%) in the Sukhumi district, with Georgians forming the most prominent minority group. However, conflicting accounts emerged. The 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica painted a different picture, suggesting that Mingrelian Georgians comprised two-thirds of the Sukhumi district’s population, with Abkhaz making up the remaining third. It’s important to note that this Britannica entry referred to a smaller territory than modern-day Abkhazia, as some areas had been incorporated into the Kuban governorate.
Socio-Economic Transformations
The Russian presence also ushered in a period of social and economic change. The serfdom reforms of 1870 saw the liberation of bound peasants, including slaves, in Abkhazia. This reform paved the way for a modest growth of capitalism in the region. Farmers began cultivating tobacco, tea, and other subtropical crops more extensively. Industries focused on coal and timber extraction started to develop, while health resorts began to be constructed along the Black Sea coast.
Gagra, a small town acquired by Prince Peter of Oldenburg, a member of the Russian royal family, witnessed a surge in tourism during the early 20th century. However, this prosperity did not mask the underlying ethnic tensions.
Political Divisions and the Seeds of Future Conflict
The Abkhaz response to the 1905 Russian Revolution further highlighted the emerging political fault lines. While most Abkhaz remained loyal to the Tsarist regime, Georgians tended to oppose it. In recognition of their loyalty, Tsar Nicholas II officially pardoned the Abkhaz for their past uprisings in 1907, removing their designation as a “guilty people.”
This episode solidified the political divisions
